The first well-known Greek civilization was that of the Minoans, who emerged on the island of Crete around 3000 BC. Legends still exist attesting to their power and the ruins of great palaces reveal their wealth and talent. They were also accomplished sailors who ruled the Aegean and communicated with surrounding nations and peoples. Around 1500 BC the civilization declined and was replaced by the people of Mycenae on the Peloponnese, whose king Agamemnon draws up images of authority and strength to this day.

But the reign of the Mycenaeans did not last long—by the 13th century BC their rule came to an end and was followed by the arrival of the Dorians from the northeast. They spoke a different dialect of Greek but beyond that did little to advance or even maintain the civilization and technology established by their predecessors. From what we know, it seems that from the 11th to the 8th century BC Greece had no centralized power and people lived in small pastoral societies that kept fairly well to themselves.

In the 8th century culture reemerged—people began traveling again to neighboring lands, and the resulting contacts brought new forms of art and technology. Writing also began again, lost since the development of written Greek based on Minoan texts in the 13th century BC. The idea of the city-state also made its way to Greece during this time. A huge population growth made more hands to work cultivating the land, and soon the casual kingdoms of the Geometric period saw springing up around them new groups of tightly-knit villages centered on a large city.

Eventually the kings gave way to aristocratic rule, but this soon was caught up in the same problems found in the established monarchies, and people began calling for governmental reform. Commoners were allowed to voice their opinions in the Assembly and many conniving rulers saw that granting the people’s requests was a sure way to gain loyalty as the ruling classes continually vied for power. Such changes allowed for the expansion of the Greek society that was now centered in Athens, both geographically and economically. 

More money meant more wars and more religious temples to please both the people and the large pantheon of temperamental Greek gods. The idea of the many city-states joining forces to create one Greek nation was considered at this time, especially as land-hungry Persian rulers took up an interest in Greek lands. 

But the two major military powers of Athens and Sparta instead became separated by bitter conflict. Peace was nominally established in 449 BC, but both of their desires to expand their empires led to more fighting. Things in general were not looking good for Athens—democracy had broken down and people were not happy, but were looking up internally until Sparta finally defeated the most advanced culture in all of Greece in 405 BC.

The city-state system continued to collapse until the emergence of the powerful Macedonians in the north. It only took two generations for Greece to be under the rule of the Macedonian Alexander the Great—as was all of Persia and even Egypt. This allowed cultural influence from around the known world to make its way into Greece, but it was also a time when Greek culture was regularized—one common language and the Olympic religion spread across the country. 

Macedonian rule was replaced by Roman rule in the 2nd century BC, and the touchstone of culture in the known world took a backseat to Rome. But things remained much the same in Greece and the area prospered despite no longer being on the world stage. Jumping ahead several hundred years, Goth invaders from the north began wreaking havoc on southern Europe and the center of Roman power shifted to Constantinople, ushering in the start of the Byzantine period.

The Byzantine period was marked by a cultural fusion that defined Greek culture for the years to come. The combination of the Greek language, Roman law reformed under Byzantine emperor Justinian and the Eastern Orthodox Church defined the period. Outside threats from northern tribes and Islamic expansion seemed ever-present, but it was Slavic tribes who made their way successfully into Greece, driving many of its inhabitants out of the country or high into the mountains. The system of city-states came to an end but the new inhabitants still saw their culture overruled by the now ingrained Hellenistic culture of Greece. In 867 an Islamic dynasty took the reigns of Byzantium (in present-day Turkey) and ushered in an artistic and cultural renaissance, but the peace and prosperity were not to last.

As the Turks slowly gained more control in the East, Western Europeans responded by initiating the Crusades in the 11th century to win back holy sites from Islamic control. The conflict did little for Greece, while Venice used its naval power and Greece’s vulnerability to seize many Greek islands for Venice in the 12th and 13th centuries, whose presence can still be seen in the architecture of the islands on the Ionian Sea. 

Large numbers of foreigners from across Europe moved to a Greece that lacked a clear leader until the powerful Ottomans came from the East and took over Constantinople in 1453. This allowed Constantinople to once again rule the lands of its former far-reaching empire that stretched from Italy to Asia, only now it was under Muslim rule. Greece took longer to subdue, its islands holding out for several hundred years with the help of Venice. Crete was not under Turkish rule until 1669, and large parts of the south could never really be considered totally subservient to the empire.

Under the Ottoman Empire, Greece was allowed to keep its religion and a moderate amount of self-rule, but was nevertheless subject to imperial mandates—including such customs as “giving” their sons to serve in the army or government. Centuries followed as outsiders looked to weaken the large Ottoman Empire while Greeks staged frequent if ineffectual uprisings. 

In the 18th century Greece had a prosperous mercantile class that began traveled to Europe and came home with new ideas about nationalism. It was from this exposure that the fight for Greek independence began. Small groups committed to Greek nationalism formed and joined forces throughout the early 19th century, and the conflict escalated into a full scale revolt in 1821, the spirit of which was much romanticized throughout Europe. Though internal conflict among the Greeks made a unified nation still a distant dream, the idealization of the event brought military and political support from around Europe. In 1832 Greece was free of Ottoman rule but was left with considerable internal troubles that quickly led to civil war despite attempts to install a new monarchy.

From independence into the 20th century Greece did not have the money to industrialize, remaining a small-scale agricultural society that saw many people emigrate in search of better fortunes. Meanwhile, efforts to liberate the people of Greek heritage still under Ottoman rule continued to drain the nation’s resources. In 1923 Greece and Turkey finally made peace, established their present borders, and thousands of Muslims and even more Greek Orthodox Christians switched places. Immigrants brought labor but also took up already strained resources. This led to political unrest, but the monarchy managed to hang on despite periods of rule by other parties.

The 1950's saw a sudden and miraculous turnaround, as the nation extremely hard-hit by WWII was finally able to modernize and prosper. The monarchy was abolished in 1974 and replaced by a Republic. Today the difficult times of the first half of the 20th century seem a distant memory and Greece continues to improve.

 Greece is home to a warm and exuberant people, who until recently lived in small villages-the growth of big cities is a fairly recent phenomenon, so much so that many people in Athens still say the name of their home village when asked where they live. People have a fierce loyalty to their villages, each possessing a very distinct personality and set of customs that sets it apart from all others. This regional diversity compensates in some ways for the relative ethnic homogeneity of the country, though recent immigration is slowly changing things.

Understandably proud of their ancient heritage, Greek nationalists in the 19th century attempted to connect modern Greece to its ancient origins by resurrecting ancient art forms and ideals to create a cohesive national identity. But the majority of Greek traditions do not date back quite that far, instead focusing on the ceremonies and practices of the Greek Orthodox Church.

Each region celebrates in their own unique way though the occasions are the same. Celebrating the day of your patron saint instead of your birthday is common practice, and Easter is the most important holiday throughout Greece. One way that present-day Greece lives up the expectations of its idealistic ancient philosophers is in a commitment to living the good life everyday, not just on special occasions. Immersing oneself in boisterous celebrations of great food, friends and family is an inescapable aspect of daily life in Greece, and hopefully a spirit that lucky travelers will be able to take home with them.

 A rocky outcropping jutting into the southeast Mediterranean, Greece is bordered to the north by Albania, Macedonia, and Bulgaria, and to the east by Turkey. Italy sits in the waters to the northwest. The hundreds of islands belonging to Greece are scattered all around the mainland peninsula, though most are concentrated in the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey. Although the only truly fertile land is the area of Thessaly and Macedonia in the northeast, Greece has one of the most diverse landscapes in the Mediterranean.

The climate varies from snow-capped mountains in the north to the sizzling beaches of the Aegean islands. Year-round high temperatures are only found along the mainland coast and on the islands—the interior is subject to the same highs and lows as the rest of continental Europe. Everything from bald stone mountains and windswept cliffs to humid lagoons and salt marshes can be found in Greece, as can an equally diverse plant and animal population. A key stop on the migration path between Africa and northern Europe, Greece welcomes large and varied bird populations, especially along the rocky cliffs of the mainland coast. Though the beaches are dazzling, the physical beauty of the country is much more than white sand and sparkling waters. 

  Most arts you’ll be exploring in Greece will be of the ancient variety, though modern forms of music and dance remain expressly Greek despite the influence of American culture. The long history of this fascinating nation has been retraced through its art—without it much of the culture and history of Greece would be lost. Art and architecture can be divided into the major periods of Greek history and reveal the various Asian, African and European influences that have come and gone over the centuries.

The earliest known art is from the Cyclades islands, small dolls already reflecting the Greek philosophic pursuit of the idealized form. Mesopotamian culture brought fabulous Minoan palaces. Around 650-500 BC statues and sculpture became more lifelike, revealing the influence of the Egyptians.

The Classical Period followed, from 490-336 BC, whose sculpture reveals rapid advances in creating a sense of movement and action. During the Hellenistic Period and the reign of Alexander the Great art took on more Eastern styles, and architecture became more complex as huge structures were built with the iconic Corinthian columns that everyone associates with Greece.

In 146 BC Greece was absorbed into the Roman Empire, but Greek styles were highly coveted and copied by the Romans. Christian and more Eastern Byzantine styles emerged, while Venice influenced the architecture of the areas it controlled in the 13th century.

During the period of Ottoman or Turkish rule that began in 1453, Christianity was tolerated but religious images were not, so the artistic focus shifted from spiritual iconography to sumptuous decorative arts. In the 18th century renewed interest in Greek origins ushered in a neoclassical phase whose structures now sit among the ruins of their ancient models.

Greek cuisine has changed little over the centuries, although economic development has brought more meat into the national diet than was possible in years past. However, meat is still a major part of what makes a celebration special. Classic ingredients like tomato, eggplant, olives, feta and other homemade cheeses and yogurts, and a liberal use of olive oil are the staples of Greek food. 

Meat is typically lamb, goat or pork, often roasted and sold from casual street stalls as gyros—thin slices of the marinated meat wrapped in a pita. A large variety of restaurants can be found throughout the country, including those serving seafood—an oddly rare delicacy in a nation where you are never more than 100 km (60 miles) from the sea. But the typical Greek restaurant is the taverna—a casual local eatery with a menu that changes little from place to place or year to year—where a meal is always a festive and very social occasion.

Greece is also a major producer of wine, but the national drink is ouzo, a spirit flavored with anise or fennel seed. It varies by region, the northern varieties tending to be drier than their southern counterparts, and is often served with small snacks either before dinner or as the dinner itself. 

 * People in Greece dress neatly and may be offended by overly casual apparel, especially outside of major tourist areas. Dress codes often apply when entering churches, typically requiring men to wear long pants and women to cover their shoulders.

* The influence of the church goes far beyond styles of dress, so discussion or criticism of church politics and practices may upset or offend your hosts or other acquaintances.

* Small service charges are usually added to restaurant bills, but it is still customary to leave a small tip for the waiter as well.

* Though it may not be considered haute cuisine, Greek food is still fabulous and a major source of pride among its people. Telling restaurant staff just how much you enjoyed your meal will make their day and win you major bonus points.

* Nude sunbathing is very offensive in Greece, and should only be practiced on beaches specifically set aside for it (on Mykonos, for example).

* A daily siesta is observed throughout the country, so shops and various attractions are often closed for a few hours in the afternoon. This also means that the main meal is eaten in the afternoon, and dinner is quite late—usually around 9 or 10 pm.

 * Discovery Channel Insight Guide: Greece (2002).

* Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, by Walter Burkert.

* The Penguin History of Greece by A.R. Burn.

* A Concise History of Greece by Richard Clogg (2002). More modern history beginning with the Byzantine era. 

* Siren Feasts by Andrew Dalby. Examines the cuisine of Classical and Byzantine Greece, showing connections to food still enjoyed today.