Although most people associate the history of Peru with the epicenter of the powerful Inca Empire, Peru's earliest civilizations thrived long before the emergence of the Inca. The earliest architecture found in Peru dates back to same time as the construction of the pyramids in Egypt. The first civilizations were coastal fisherman who moved inland starting around 1800 BC, constructing irrigation canals that allowed them to diversify their crops. Large settlements developed in the Casma Valley to the north of Lima, of which remnants still exist today, such as the stone monoliths of Sechin.

At the same time, settlements were farming in the highlands, whose people used domesticated llamas, still the pack animal of Peru, to carry potatoes and grains down to the coastal area to trade. These highland tradesmen then carried back not only fish and other goods, but also the already established religion of the people they traded with. It was also around this time that the Peruvian delicacy cuy (guinea pig) was domesticated, and when the techniques that still characterize the iconographic weaving of the Peruvians today were developed. The Nazca and Moche tribes followed in the area south of Trujillo, leaving behind the Temple of the Sun and Moon, and other groups rose to prominence in succession-Wari, Chimu, Chachapoyas.

Skip ahead hundreds of years and jump to the central highlands, where in the early 15th century a small tribe under the rule of emperor Pachacutec begins its meteoric rise to become the great Inca Empire. In only 50 years the Inca created an empire stretching from Colombia to Chile, absorbing or destroying all the other tribes that stood in its way and advancing in leaps and bounds by taking on the technologies and knowledge practiced by the people who joined them-everything from architecture and irrigation to healing and working with gold. By the time the Spanish arrived, the city of Cusco was already well developed as the center of the vast empire. The common language was Quechua, which is still spoken today from Ecuador to Bolivia.

The colonization period of Peruvian history is marked by the development of the mining industry to take advantage of the country's mineral wealth, worked largely by the native Inca population. Catholic movements in the 17th century, hoping to convert the native people, only served to entrench native spiritual beliefs, providing a thin Christian veneer that allowed native religions to live on.

In the late 18th century, the indigenous people of Peru started to rebel, leading to some reforms as well as growing demand for independence from Spain. With the help of foreigner and independence fighter Jose San Martin, independence was declared in the capital city of Lima on July 28, 1821, and labor and land reforms were put in motion.

But Peru was not ready for self-rule. From 1826 to 1865, it saw 35 presidents come and go, each one leaving behind a country ruled only by chaos and poverty. In 1830 a new source of revenue was discovered-the bat excretion guano, highly coveted in Europe as a fertilizer-that brought large amounts of money to Peru, but its benefit was overshadowed by the horrible conditions workers went through to obtain it, often at the cost of their lives. To add insult to injury, in 1879 Chile declared war on Peru and Bolivia over disputed land rich in mineral deposits. Unprepared to fight, both Peru and Bolivia were forced to cede the land (called the Tarapanca) to Chile, ending the War of the Pacific in 1883.

It would be nice to say that Peru finally left all these troubles behind as it moved into the 20th century. Unfortunately its economic and political struggles persist. The population increased dramatically without a concurrent increase in employment. It wasn't until a military revolution in 1968, followed by another blow to the economy during the subsequent military rule, that democracy finally replaced the long-standing oligarchic system of government. Democratic elections in 1985 and 1990 reaffirmed the nation's commitment to democracy, despite lacking the tools necessary to create an effective government.

These days a lack of jobs, paired with an extremely harsh climate, havs driven many people into cities that simply do not have resources for them all. The few groups of Amerindians who have remained in the Amazonian jungle never know when a land developer will come barreling into their home to destroy their way of life. But even with this sometimes sad history, Peru can boast a proud people of incredible strength and a gorgeous landscape that Peru itself-and the rest of the world-should never give up on.

  Life in Peru is harsh, and the dearth of modern resources available to a large part of the population means that ancient ways of life are maintained, perhaps more out of necessity than nostalgia. Brightly colored clothes woven using Pre-Inca techniques and the Inca practice of dividing labor amongst large family groups (called allyu) are still very visible aspects of the agricultural life of the highlands.

In the jungle, over 50 distinct linguistic groups still exist, some spoken by as yet untouched tribes. But when it comes time to party, tradition reveals itself to be thoroughly linked with modern times. A fermented drink made from corn, called chicha, is still consumed in mass quantities during ancient ritual celebrations. A semi-Catholic holiday, celebrating the Lord of the Earthquakes, takes place on Easter Monday and is unique to the city of Cusco. The day is spent celebrating a portrait of Christ that people say saved the city from an earthquake in 1650. The nucchu, a flower whose red color now symbolizes the blood of Christ, was once given as an offering to ancient gods; its major role in the festivities is a great example of how European iconography has allowed the pre-Columbian rites of the people to live on under a guise of Christianity.

This same part of the year also brings the wine festival in Ica, a four hour drive south of Lima, complete with parades, a Queen of the Wine, and of course, gallons of the many varieties that Peru has coaxed out of its desert landscape. This, along with the Pachacamac horse festival in Lima, provides visitors with the chance to see European culture in Peru outside of its colonial architecture.

But not all the fun happens around Easter. Gifts are given to the spirits of Peru's ancestors in Cusco every August, a traditional offering to an earth goddess that has outlasted the centuries. July is livened up around the country by Independence Day, and how can having Christmas in the summer not be fun?

 Although Peru spans a number of different environments, from Amazonian forests to a desert coastline, its defining geographical feature has to be the powerful and obtrusive Andes mountain range. Although its highlands make up only a quarter of Peru's land area, it is home to over half of the population (seemingly the better choice between that or untamed tropical jungle). Though proud of their marvelous landscape, the people of Peru are nevertheless faced with a harsh climate and a rather large obstacle around which to distribute their scant resources.

Most visitors to Peru are heading to Macchu Picchu, a trek that could involve considerable time outdoors (depending on your adventure level). So keep in mind that the rainy season in the Sierra lasts from October to May. Most places in the highlands don't see much snow, but the best time to visit and enjoy clear views of the mountains you flew all that way to see is between May and September.

In Lima, the year is divided into hot and sunny (December to April) and foggy (all those other months in between- but August is considered the most severe month). The jungle is of course hot and humid all the time. So if your trip runs the gamut of Peru's starkly contrasted climates, be prepared to pack smart and wear layers (and see the Further Readings section for more information on how to travel Peru the right way).

 When you think of the highlands, you can't avoid the image of a traditionally dressed native highlander draped in a hand-woven cloth in bright, bright primary colors. When you live that high up, quality weaving is a necessity, but the Peruvians have turned necessity into an art form.

Also not to be overlooked are the country's unique musical traditions. The folk music that entered the world stage during the 1960s had existed in Peru for centuries and possessed special significance in an entirely oral culture (the Quechua language of the Inca had no system of writing). Songs capturing the every day life of its people-herding, harvesting, returning from war- are all played on traditional Peruvian instruments like the bass-heavy Andean harp. Accompanying this musical tradition is a fierce love of dance among the native people, an environment that proved the perfect match for the criolla (Creole) and African musical influences that newcomers to Peru brought with them over the years.

The cuisine of Peru is itself an artistic melding of a variety of diverse cultures. Guinea pig and aji chile are the highland's contributions to national cuisine, with the jungle serving up manioc and fried bananas, and the coast bringing in chupe de camarones (shrimp soup) and ceviche (raw seafood marinated in citrus and peppers). Add in some Spanish, Arabic, African, Chinese, and Japanese influences, and you've got yourself a world cuisine. So be brave and grab a fork, but before you dig in, take a moment to give thanks to Peru for giving the world that delicious, starchy vegetable, the potato, without which our lives would just little less rich. Provecho!

 * A prepared traveler is a happy traveler! Educate yourself, pack accordingly, and there is nothing to stop you from having the experience of a lifetime (and we mean that in a good way).

* Vaccines for malaria and yellow fever are recommended for all visitors to Peru.

* On the food front, it is a good idea to stick to bottled drinks and fruit you peel yourself.

* Many people experience altitude sickness. Symptoms include nausea, headache, and fatigue. The best thing to do is take it easy, lie down, and drink the readily available tea made from coca leaves; you'll be up and running in no time.

* Another factor of the thinner air is the higher risk of sunburn and dehydration. Always cover up and carry water with you. Adding salt to your food can also help your body to retain water (a good thing in this case).

 * Insight Guides: Peru, published in 2005 by Apa Publications.

* Cut Stones and Crossroads by Ronald Wright, published in 1984 by Viking Press.

* The Conquest of the Incas by John Hemming, published in 18983 by Penguin.

* Rainforests: A Guide to Tourist and Research Facilities at Selected Tropical Forest Sites by James L. Castner, published by Feline Press.

* Faces of Latin America by Duncan Green, published by Monthly Review Press, 1997.