Many thousands of years ago the Sahara Desert was a fertile savannah. When it slowly began to dry out people were forced to migrate, eventually traveling all the way to the banks of the Nile where annual flooding provided them with the fertile soil they needed to survive. It is at this point that the long history of Egypt begins. The easier way of life allowed settlements to flourish and advance rapidly, leading to the development of hieroglyphs with which to organize the emerging society. The oldest known hieroglyphs date from approximately 3250 BC.

Civilization continued to grow and inevitable conflict led to the formation of two kingdoms—Lower Egypt (in the north) and Upper Egypt (in the south). By 3100 BC the two kingdoms were united under one ruler, creating the world’s first nation-state. From 3100 to 2180 BC the Old Kingdom ruled Egypt. The capital of Memphis was established at the start of the Nile Delta, with a later burial site and the country’s first known pyramids built at nearby Saqqara. Rulers divided the country into 42 administrative provinces used to collect the taxes that built the pyramids of the Old Kingdom. 

Eventually bad crops and massive building projects damaged the economy, and hence the monarchy, as each province set up its own kingdom in the First Intermediate Period. The chaos was ended by 11th Dynasty ruler Montuhotep II of Thebes in 2055 BC, and the country reunited for the period of the Middle Kingdom. Construction resumed and the capital returned to Memphis under the 12th Dynasty. But conflict inevitably flared up, and the country was divided once again during the Second Intermediate Period that lasted until the establishment of the New Kingdom in 1550 BC.

The country was united once more and Egypt’s “Golden Age” began. During this time Egypt expanded its empire and became the greatest power in the ancient world. Temples, forts and burial sites were built as never before thanks to money collected as tribute from its newly acquired lands. The Valley of the Kings and the impressive Karnak Temple dedicated to the god Amun were built around Thebes, as each successive ruler tried to outdo his predecessors. A line of powerful pharaohs, both men and women, solidified Egypt’s position as a powerful empire. 

Trouble started when the pharaoh Akhetaten outlawed the traditional religion. Luckily his wife Nefertiti reinstated the religion and moved the capital back to Thebes, smoothing things over before the empire fell apart. The short reign of Akhetaten’s son Tutankhamun was also spent restoring peaceful relations within Egypt. Later rulers were then able to look outward, and pharaohs once again poured money into large scale building projects, notably during the reign of Ramses II (1279-1213 BC), whose military successes earned him the name Ramses the Great. 

Eventually invaders from Libya and the Mediterranean toppled the New Kingdom in 1070 BC and 400 years of foreign domination of a fractured Egypt followed. In 669 BC Assyrians started their bid to take over but were stopped in their attempts by the Persians, who ruled for 200 years before Egypt’s liberation by Alexander the Great in 332. He then ruled the “freed” Egypt from his new port city of Alexandria. Alexander’s aide Ptolemy took over after his death, starting a line of successors that ruled in Alexandria from 305 to 30 BC (known as the Ptolemaic Period). The last Ptolemaic ruler was Cleopatra, who managed to assert Egypt’s power internationally by seducing the heads of Rome and making use of their power to maintain Egypt’s independence. Her death after 21 years as ruler was quickly followed by Egypt becoming a Roman province. 

Egypt eventually became predominantly a sect of Christians called Copts, who came into frequent conflict with Rome until the country was taken over by Muslim Arabs in 640 AD. After 350 years of Islamic rule, Egypt was invaded by Tunisian Fatimids who established a new city called Al-Qahira or “the Victorious”—only later to become Cairo in the mouths of Europeans. After a short 200-year reign the Fatimids were displaced by the Syrian ruler Salah ad-Din al-Ayyubi, who built Cairo’s Citadel that still stands today.

Syrian rule did not have the same staying power as the Citadel; Salah ad-Din’s rule was quickly replaced by the Mamluks, a group of warriors originally brought to Egypt as slaves, whose political and military power grew until they controlled the country in the 13th century. For the 200 years they ruled Egypt, the top spot filled by whoever among them was the strongest; challenges over power were frequent. Egypt’s economy took a hit when Vasco de Gama found an alternate route to the East around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 and soon after the Mamluks were defeated by the Ottomans. 

Egypt was then ruled remotely from Constantinople despite a resurgence of Mamluk resistance in the mid-17th century and Napoleon’s invasion in 1798. In the 19th century the Ottoman’s began modernizing Egypt, building factories and roads and nationalizing the agriculture industry. The biggest achievement of the century was the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 between the mainland and the Sinai Peninsula. 

Political unrest followed as people began calling for freedom, which provided the opportunity for the British to step in and occupy the country in the late 19th century. The costs of supporting England in World War I were hard on Egypt and calls for independence continued, but Britain retained control until the Revolution of 1952, and eventually the establishment of Egypt as a Republic in 1956. Gamal Abdel Nasser was elected president, becoming the country’s first Egyptian ruler since the time of the pharaohs. Religious tensions and resulting military action against Israel dominated the second half of the 20th century, though today peace is restored and Egypt is often called upon to mediate peace talks for the nations of the Middle East.

Traditional life in Egypt centers on agriculture. With so little space to be used for growing food, every inch must be put to maximum use. Outside of the sprawling metropolis of Cairo, whose population has been growing steadily in the late 20th century as people move in from the country, people live in rural towns with populations that range from 500 to 10,000. Practices employed by farmers are similar to those used thousands of years ago during the era of the Pharaohs, though modern equipment does play a part. 

Most people work in agriculture or raise sheep, buffalo or goat. Up to 90% of the population is Muslim, with Christians making up the rest. Egypt is a conservative society, where in recent decades people have brought back conservative practices that were abandoned during more liberal periods. However, advances made by women in terms of equality in education and professional settings have persisted. Arab Bedouin and Berber tribes still inhabit the desert using ancient practices to extract water and food from the land.

 Egypt is located on the northeast corner of Africa, bordered by Libya to the west, Israel to the east, Sudan to the south, and has coasts on both the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Over 90% of the country is desert, forcing almost all of its population to live on the banks of the Nile and in the fertile Nile Delta. Dotted among the endless sand dunes lie fertile oases with small populations. Cairo, Egypt’s capital, is located on the Nile about 125 miles south of the Mediterranean.

Annual flooding of the Nile Valley was stopped by the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1971, but the valley remains the agricultural center of the country, with every inch of fertile space along the Nile devoted to farming. The fact that almost no rain falls in Egypt means people are completely dependent on its few sources of water, and makes the Nile a highly significant part of Egyptian life. The hottest weather lasts from May to October, cooling off a bit from November to April. The only major change in weather takes place in April and May with the arrival of the Khamseen, a powerful dry wind that can cause sandstorms.

 Ancient artifacts get the lion’s share of attention when it comes to Egyptian art. Many of the riches left behind by thousands of years of empire can be seen at museums throughout the country. Pharaohs and other royalty were buried with fabulous gifts of gold and precious stones to help them make their way through the underworld; today these and more everyday objects like furniture reveal the advancement of the Egyptians as well as their artistic skills.

Egyptian food reflects the country’s location at a meeting point of Arab, African, and Mediterranean cultures. The focus on beans and grains makes Egypt seemingly a vegetarian’s paradise but meat often sneaks its way into many dishes. Lentil soup, hummus, and babaghanoush (a dip made from eggplant) are all familiar exports, as is the flatbread that often accompanies them. Fresh homemade cheeses and stuffed grape leaves and vegetables are also found throughout the country. Lamb is a very popular meat, served either grilled as kebabs or in spicy meatballs called kofta. Baklawa is a typical desert made of nuts and puff pastry soaked in sugary syrup. Dried fruits and nuts are common components of Egyptian sweets. Despite being an Islamic country, alcoholic drinks are widely available, but non-alcoholic drinks are a treat themselves, whether you choose sweet chai tea, strong Arabian coffee, or a refreshing fruit juice prepared right before your eyes.

 * When visiting a mosque, it is customary to tip the guardian at the entrance, as well as the attendant who keeps your shoes or gives you something with which to cover your hair.

* Always ask before taking someone’s photo.

* It is illegal to take pictures of army bases, airports, government buildings and all objects and places related to national security.

* Take all the necessary precautions against the intense desert heat—sun block, a hat, and layers. Always carry water—both in a bottle, and in your body by adding salt to your food. 

* Tap water is safe to drink but heavily chlorinated and not too tasty, so sticking with bottled water usually better suits visitors.

  Eyewitness Travel Guides: Egypt, published by DK.

* Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt by John Baines and Jaromir Malek, revised edition published by Checkmark Books, 2000.

* The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt by Ian Shaw, 2002.

* The Art of Ancient Egypt by Gay Robins, published by Harvard University Press, 2000.

* Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in a Bedouin Society by Lila Abu-Lughod, published in 1988 by the University of California Press. 

* Cairo: The City Victorious by Max Rodenbeck, published by Vintage in 2000.